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The 17th century was rich in popular risings, such as the liberation of Moscow from the Polish—Lithuanian invaders , the Salt Riot , the Copper Riot , and the Moscow Uprising of The plague epidemics ravaged Moscow in —, and — The Plague of was the last massive outbreak of plague in central Russia, claiming up to , lives in Moscow alone. As many as , died during this time, and only a few tens of thousands of ravaged troops returned.
In , sixteen divisions of the national volunteers more than , people , twenty-five battalions 18, people and four engineering regiments were formed among the Muscovites.
Many factories were evacuated, together with most of the government, and from 20 October the city was declared to be under siege. Its remaining inhabitants built and supervised antitank defenses, while the city was subjected to air bombing. Joseph Stalin refused to leave Moscow, meaning that the general staff and the council of people’s commissars remained in the city as well. Despite the siege and the bombings, the construction of Moscow’s metro system continued through the war, and by the end of the war several new metro lines were opened.
Both German and Soviet casualties during the battle of Moscow have been a subject of debate, as various sources provide somewhat different estimates. Total casualties between 30 September , and 7 January , are estimated to be between , and , for the Wehrmacht and between , and 1,, for the Red Army. On 1 May , a medal For the defense of Moscow and in another medal In memory of the th anniversary of Moscow were introduced.
In commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the victory over Nazi Germany , on May 8, , Moscow became one of twelve Soviet cities awarded the Hero City title. In , it hosted the Summer Olympic Games , which were boycotted by the United States and several other Western countries due to the Soviet Union’s involvement in Afghanistan in late In , Moscow was the scene of the failed coup attempt by the government members opposed to the reforms of Mikhail Gorbachev.
Since then, the emergence of a market economy in Moscow has produced an explosion of Western-style retailing, services, architecture , and lifestyles. This city hosted the World Championships in Athletics. Moscow is situated on the banks of the Moskva River, which flows for just over km mi through the East European Plain in central Russia.
Teplostanskaya highland is the city’s highest point at metres feet. Moscow serves as the reference point for the timezone used in most of Central Russia, including Saint Petersburg. Daylight saving time is no longer observed. The highest temperature ever recorded was Snow, which is present for three to five months a year, often begins to fall at the end of November and melts by mid-March.
Template:Moscow weatherbox. Moscow, being in the middle latitudes of the northern hemisphere, is a place with the most expressed signs of global warming. Thus the climate becomes less stable, but the average yearly temperature is growing.
So, the period from July until the beginning of August has become considerably warmer. During this time periods of extreme heat are often observed in the city , , , , At the end of January—February it is often colder , , The last decade was the warmest in the history of meteorological observations of Moscow. Temperature changes in the city are depicted in the table below:. According to the results of the Census, the population of Moscow was 11,,; [8] up from 10,, recorded in the Census.
At the time of the official Census, the ethnic makeup of the city’s population whose ethnicity was known 10,, people was: [8].
The official population of Moscow is based on those holding “permanent residency. The number of unofficial guests, those without proper documentation, the vast majority from Central Asia, is estimated to be an additional 1 million people, [40] for a total population of about Cathedral of Christ the Saviour , demolished during the Soviet period, was reconstructed during — Christianity is the predominant religion in the city, of which the Russian Orthodox Church is the most popular.
Moscow is Russia’s capital of Orthodox Christianity. The Patriarch of Moscow serves as the head of the church and resides in the Danilov Monastery. In Bolsheviks’ government declared Russia a secular state, which actually meant that religion was outlawed and society was to become totally atheistic. During the period of s a great number of churches in Moscow were demolished, including historical Chudov Monastery in Kremlin, dating from the 14th century, Kazansky Cathedral on the Red Square, the Cathedral of Christ the Savior , constructed in the 19th century in memory of a victory over the Napoleon army in , and many more.
It still continued even after WW II, in s, when persecutions against religion in Soviet Union became less severe. Most of the surviving churches and monasteries were closed and then used as clubs, offices, factories and even warehouses.
Since the disintegration of the Soviet Union in many of the destroyed churches have been restored and traditional religions are once again gaining popularity. Among the churches reconstructed in s is an impressive Cathedral of Christ the Savior which once more has become one of the most picturesque landmarks of the city.
People over 30 years old still remember a huge open swimming-pool which was located on the site of the demolished cathedral till Muslims constitute around 1.
Saint Basil’s Cathedral in Moscow, the masterpiece of Russian architecture. The Shukhov Tower in Moscow. Currently under threat of demolition, the tower is at the top of UNESCO ‘s Endangered Buildings list and there is an international campaign to save it. Ostankino Tower. Moscow’s architecture is world-renowned. The first Kremlin was built in the middle of the 12th century. Medieval Moscow’s design was of concentric walls and intersecting radial thoroughfares.
This layout, as well as Moscow’s rivers, helped shape Moscow’s design in subsequent centuries. The Kremlin was rebuilt in the 15th century. Its towers and some of its churches were built by Italian architects, lending the city some of the aura of the renaissance.
From the end of the 15th century, the city was embellished by increasing numbers of masonry structures such as monasteries, palaces, walls, towers, and churches. The city’s appearance had not changed much by the 18th century. Houses were made of pine and spruce logs, with shingled roofs plastered with sod or covered by birch bark. The rebuilding of Moscow in the second half of the 18th century was necessitated not only by constant fires, but also the needs of the nobility.
Much of the wooden city was replaced by buildings in the classical style. For much of its architectural history, Moscow was dominated by Orthodox churches. However, the overall appearance of the city changed drastically during Soviet times, especially as a result of Joseph Stalin’s large-scale effort to “modernize” Moscow. Stalin’s plans for the city included a network of broad avenues and roadways, some of them over ten lanes wide, which, while greatly simplifying movement through the city, were constructed at the expense of a great number of historical buildings and districts.
Among the many casualties of Stalin’s socialist reforms was the Sukharev Tower , a longtime city landmark, as well as numerous mansions and commercial buildings lining the major streets.
The city’s newfound status as the capital of a deeply secular , totalitarian nation, made religiously significant buildings especially vulnerable to demolition. Many of the city’s churches, which in most cases were some of Moscow’s oldest and most prominent buildings, were destroyed; some notable examples include the Kazan Cathedral and the Cathedral of Christ the Savior. During the s, both were rebuilt. Many smaller churches, however, were lost.
While the later Stalinist period was characterized by the curtailing of creativity and architectural innovation, the earlier post-revolutionary years saw a plethora of radical new buildings created in the city. Another prominent architect was Vladimir Shukhov , famous for Shukhov Tower, just one of many hyperboloid towers designed by Shukhov. It was built between and as a transmission tower for a Russian broadcasting company.
He designed spacious elongated shop galleries, most notably the GUM department store on Red Square , [48] bridged with innovative metal-and-glass vaults. Triumphal Arch of Moscow , was built from — Perhaps the most recognizable contributions of the Stalinist period are the so-called Seven Sisters , comprising seven massive skyscrapers scattered throughout the city at about an equal distance from the Kremlin.
The Soviet goal of providing housing for every family, and the rapid growth of Moscow’s population, led to the construction of large, monotonous housing blocks.
Most of these date from the post-Stalin era and the styles are often named after the leader then in power Brezhnev, Khrushchev, etc. They are usually badly maintained. Although the city still has some five-story apartment buildings constructed before the mids, more recent apartment buildings are usually at least 9 floors tall, and have elevators.
It is estimated that Moscow has over twice as many elevators as New York City and four times as many as Chicago. Moslift, one of the city’s major elevator operating companies, has about elevator mechanics on call, to release residents trapped in elevators. Stalinist-era buildings, mostly found in the central part of the city, are massive and usually ornamented with Socialist realism motifs that imitate classical themes.
However, small churches — almost always Eastern Orthodox — found across the city provide glimpses of its past. The Old Arbat Street , a popular tourist street that was once the heart of a bohemian area, preserves most of its buildings from prior to the 20th century. Ostankino Palace , Kuskovo , Uzkoye and other large estates just outside Moscow originally belong to nobles from the Tsarist era, and some convents and monasteries , both inside and outside the city, are open to Muscovites and tourists.
There are a few examples of notable, early Soviet avant-garde work too, such as the house of the architect Konstantin Melnikov in the Arbat area. Many of these restorations were criticized for alleged disrespect of historical authenticity. Facadism is also widely practiced. Plaques on house exteriors will inform passers-by that a well-known personality once lived there.
Frequently, the plaques are dedicated to Soviet celebrities not well-known outside or often, like with decorated generals and revolutionaries, now both inside of Russia. There are also many “museum houses” of famous Russian writers, composers, and artists in the city. In recent years, the city administration has been widely criticized for heavy destruction that has affected many historical buildings.
As much as a third of historic Moscow has been destroyed in the past few years [52] to make space for luxury apartments and hotels. Critics also blame the government for not enforcing conservation laws: in the last 12 years more than 50 buildings with monument status were torn down, several of those dating back to the 17th century.
Some organizations, such as Moscow Architecture Preservation Society and Save Europe’s Heritage , are trying to draw the international public attention to these problems. Tsaritsyno Park and palace. Novodevichy Convent is one of the World Heritage Sites. There are 96 parks and 18 gardens in Moscow, including 4 botanical gardens.
There are also square kilometres sq mi of green zones besides square kilometres 39 sq mi of forests. There are on average 27 square meters sq ft of parks per person in Moscow compared with 6 for Paris , 7.
The Garden features the Green Theater, one of the largest open amphitheaters in Europe, able to hold up to 15 thousand people. Several parks include a section known as a “Park of Culture and Rest”, sometimes alongside a much wilder area this includes parks such as Izmaylovsky, Fili and Sokolniki. Some parks are designated as Forest Parks lesopark. Izmaylovsky Park , created in , is one of the largest urban parks in the world along with Richmond Park in London.
Its area of Sokolniki Park , named after the falcon hunting that occurred there in the past, is one of the oldest parks in Moscow and has an area of 6 square kilometres 2. A central circle with a large fountain is surrounded by birch, maple and elm tree alleys. A labyrinth composed of green paths lies beyond the park’s ponds. It is quite wild, and is also known as the “city taiga” — elk can be seen there. It also contains a rosarium with 20 thousand rose bushes, a dendrarium, and an oak forest, with the average age of trees exceeding years.
There is also a greenhouse taking up more than square meters of land. Among the large spans of recreational park areas are scores of elaborate pavilions, each representing either a branch of Soviet industry and science or one of USSR’s republics. Even though, during the s, it was, and for some part still is, misused as a gigantic shopping center most of the pavilions are rented out for small businesses , it still retains the bulk of its architectural landmarks, including two monumental fountains Stone Flower and Friendship of Nations and a degrees panoramic cinema.
Lilac Park , founded in , is known for its permanent sculpture display and a large rosarium. Moscow has always been a popular destination for tourists. Near the new Tretyakov Gallery there is a sculpture garden, Museon, often called ” the graveyard of fallen monuments ” that displays statues of the former Soviet Union that were removed from their place after its dissolution.
Other popular attractions include the Moscow Zoo , a zoological garden in two sections the valleys of two streams linked by a bridge, with nearly a thousand species and more than 6, specimens. The concentric and outward spanning roads of Moscow, as viewed from the International Space Station.
Moscow’s road system is centered roughly around the Kremlin at the heart of the city. From there, roads generally span outwards to intersect with a sequence of circular roads “rings”. The first and innermost major ring, Bulvarnoye Koltso Boulevard Ring , was built at the former location of the 16th-century city wall around what used to be called Bely Gorod White Town.
Like the Boulevard Ring, the Garden Ring follows the path of a 16th-century wall that used to encompass part of Moscow. The third ring, the Third Transport Ring, was completed in as a high-speed freeway. The Fourth Transport Ring, another freeway, is under construction to further reduce traffic congestion. Outside Moscow, some of the roads encompassing the city continue to follow this circular pattern seen inside city limits.
The Bolshoi Theatre after its renovation. Moscow International House of Music. One of the most notable art museums in Moscow is the Tretyakov Gallery, which was founded by Pavel Tretyakov , a wealthy patron of the arts who donated a large private collection to the city. The Old Tretyakov gallery, the original gallery in the Tretyakovskaya area on the south bank of the Moskva River, houses works in the classic Russian tradition.
Visitors can even see rare originals by early 15th-century iconographer Andrei Rublev. The new gallery includes a small reconstruction of Vladimir Tatlin ‘s famous Monument to the Third International and a mixture of other avant-garde works by artists like Kazimir Malevich and Wassily Kandinsky. Socialist realism features can also be found within the halls of the New Tretyakov Gallery. The Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts. Another art museum in the city of Moscow is the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts , which was founded by, among others, the father of Marina Tsvetaeva.
The Pushkin Museum is similar to the British Museum in London in that its halls are a cross-section of exhibits on world civilisations, with many copies of ancient sculptures. Its exhibitions range from relics of the prehistoric tribes inhabiting present-day Russia, through priceless artworks acquired by members of the Romanov dynasty. The total number of objects in the museum’s collection numbers is several million.
The Polytechnical Museum , [67] founded in is the largest technical museum in Russia, offering a wide array of historical inventions and technological achievements, including humanoid automata from the 18th century and the first Soviet computers. Its collection contains more than , items. There is also a military history museum not to be missed, it includes statues, military hardware, and one will surely hear many interesting stories.
The Red Army Theater was built in the shape of a star. Moscow is also the heart of the Russian performing arts, including ballet and film. There are 93 theaters, cinemas and 24 concert halls in Moscow.
The repertories in a typical Moscow season are numerous and modern interpretations of classic works, whether operatic or theatrical, are quite common. Tretyakov Gallery. The Moscow International Performance Arts Center, [70] opened in , also known as Moscow International House of Music , is known for its performances in classical music.
It also has the largest organ in Russia installed in Svetlanov Hall. Memorial Museum of Astronautics under the Monument to the Conquerors of Space in the end of Cosmonauts Alley is the central memorial place for the Russian space officials. Soviet films are integral to Russian film history and the Mosfilm studio was at the heart of many classic films, as it is responsible for both artistic and mainstream productions.
Rare and historical films may be seen in the Salut cinema, where films from the Museum of Cinema [73] collection are shown regularly. The Shchusev State Museum of Architecture is the national museum of Russian architecture by the name of the architect Alexey Shchusev near the Kremlin area. Moscow possesses a large number of various sports facilities and over Olympic champions lived in the city by Forty other sport complexes are located within the city, including twenty-four with artificial ice.
The Olympic Stadium was the world’s first indoor arena for bandy and hosted the Bandy World Championships twice. There are also seven horse racing tracks in Moscow, [57] of which Central Moscow Hippodrome , [77] founded in , is the largest. Lokomotiv Stadium. Moscow was the host city of the Summer Olympics , although the yachting events were held at Tallinn , in present-day Estonia. Large sports facilities and the main international airport, Sheremetyevo Terminal 2, were built in preparation for the Summer Olympics.
Moscow had also made a bid for the Summer Olympics. However, when final voting commenced on 6 July , Moscow was the first city to be eliminated from further rounds. The Games were finally awarded to London. Central Moscow Hippodrome. Some of them were the best players in the world.
Moscow houses several equally prominent and award-winning football, ice hockey, basketball and many other sports teams, which is rather unusual for Russia as well as the world. Because sports organisations in the Soviet Union were highly centralized in the first place, two of the best-manned Union-level teams represented defence and law-enforcing agencies: the Armed Forces CSKA and the Ministry of Internal Affairs Dinamo and a Union-wide selection there were “army” and “police” teams in most major cities and Moscow being the center of both the sports organisations, DoD and police headquarters, Spartak, CSKA and Dinamo were equally the most prestigious, well-manned and best-funded teams in the USSR.
Luzhniki Stadium. Because of Moscow’s cold local climate, winter sports have a large following as well. Many of Moscow’s large parks offer marked trails for skiing and frozen ponds for skating. It is regarded as a very prestigious tournament and is one of the ten Tier-I events on the women’s tour and a host of Russian players feature every year. Slava Moscow is a professional rugby club, competing in the national Professional Rugby League.
Former rugby league heavyweights RC Lokomotiv have entered the same league as of In bandy one of the most successful clubs in the world is 20 times and current Russian League champions Dynamo Moscow.
Russia was given the right to host the World Cup , and in Moscow, the Luzhniki Stadium will have an increased capacity, by almost 10, new seats, in addition to a further two stadiums that will be built: the Dynamo Stadium, and the Spartak Stadium.
Together these will have a capacity of at least 40, seats. Fountain in Moscow’s Square of Europe. Tverskaya Street. The city is full of different kinds of clubs, restaurants and bars.
The Moscow city center and Rublevka richest area of the city have a wide selection of luxury establishments. Tverskaya Street is also one of the busiest shopping streets in Moscow. View from the Seven Sisters in Kudrinskaya Square.
The mayor’s highrise office the former Comecon headquarters is to the left, the Russian government building to the right.
Moscow is the seat of power for the Russian Federation. The year-old transvestite was shortlisted for lotdrawing to determine if he will undergo two years of military training during assessments at Wat. School subsidies for poor students to be increased from 27 per cent this year to. They discussed specifically ways to expand cooperation in hydro-elec-tric power, railways, sea transport, mutual investment and trade.
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In their study of the changing face of foreign correspondence, American mass communication scholars John Maxwell Hamilton and Eric Jenner , delineate changes in international news flow with the aim of elucidating the implications of such changes for future researchers who want to study the interplay between news and international policy.
The authors of the study might have added a category for “expert non-affiliated foreign correspondents”, that is, foreigners who are experts in their field, but not journalists per se, hypothetically for example, if South African naturalist conservationist Lawrence Anthony would write a report for the Washington Post about the plight of the animals in the Baghdad Zoo.
Because the term “foreign correspondent” no longer defines the traditional concept, Hamilton and Jenner concludes: We cannot assess the health of foreign correspondence merely by counting the number of reporters sent abroad by major dailies and the networks or by only analyzing stories in The New York Times, Newsweek and CBS News.
None of the incidents occurred in the selected countries, which means that they all can be regarded as foreign news. When it is neither, coverage conforms to traditional norms of foreign news coverage.
This belies the common notion that acts of terrorism guarantees publicity, which is the purpose of the deed. The study is interesting in terms of the flow of foreign news, but it is a pity that more recent acts of violence, such as the 11 September attacks on the US and the war in Iraq were not included; not only for the sake of recency, but because the media landscape — especially in terms of technology — had changed drastically during the past decade. Nevertheless, the study gives insight into the logic of reporters during times of national crisis.
American journalism academic Beverly Horvit conducted a study from another angle, namely to examine how six international news agencies reflected the international structure of political power in the period prior to Gulf War II This is done to determine in what ways the news that most probably have reached the American public differed from news that flowed to the rest of the international community: whose perspectives were most salient, and was the coverage for or against the Bush administration’s foreign policies?
Horvit also notes that contrary to the views of some critics, Western news agencies cover a broader geographical area than their non-Western counterparts, and also provided news much more frequently However, the non-Western agencies reported on countries that would rarely be covered by Western agencies, such as Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan and the Ukraine, as well as Cuba, Cyprus and Nicaragua Horvit, Four of the agencies reported most frequently from the US and cited US officials more often than any other source Horvit, The study suggests that the Western news agencies are even-handed in their reporting, with especially AP, AFP and Reuters getting “much closer to balancing positive and negative statements toward the US” Horvit, Horvit concludes that [w]hile researchers have long studied the imbalance in the flow of news about particular countries, research into source dependency suggests the imbalance within the flow of international news should be addressed, as well An imbalance in sourcing practices is as problematic as — and is a reflection of — an overall imbalance in the flow of news.
This study gives a good idea of the leanings of the different news agencies, and it would be interesting if this study could be expanded in future to determine how the agency stories were eventually used by the media in different countries across the globe. The news analysis of the current study partially addresses this issue. The Horvit study also illustrates the importance and effect of news agencies as gatekeepers in the channel of news flow. When reading these articles, however, it is clear that gatekeeping is addressed.
Ravi studies the gatekeeping role of nationality and elite opinion in the flow of news from its sources to the audience. The selected incidents and public addresses offer valuable points of reference to determine whether the newspapers accepted, rejected or digressed from the official US war frame, as well as to establish how national points of view and cultural and political differences shaped coverage of the war Ravi, Indian and Pakistani reports made civilian deaths much more salient “which fitted in with the image of a harsh and cruel war”.
Western society’s emphasis on the individual was mirrored in reports on individual casualties or rescue operations, while the South Asian emphasis was on the collective, which is in line with the value this society sets on the community, rather than the individual. Ravi did not consider the possibility that the “openness and truth telling” of the US administration’s information management was part of a carefully planned strategy, aimed specifically at influencing public opinion in favour of the US war effort Rumsfeld, a.
Palmer and Fontan look at a completely neglected role-player in the gatekeeping process, namely the fixer, and examine how this additional link between the source and the reporter impacts upon newsgathering in Iraq.
To determine the key issues in the minds of reporters and fixers Palmer and Fontan conducted semi-structured interviews with 17 French and British reporters and 14 Iraqi fixers working for US, UK and Japanese print and audio-visual media.
They arrange and even conduct interviews, translate, explain context to reporters, assess the security situation, handle dangerous situations and have access to networks of local contacts. Fixers help bridge the knowledge gap that is created by this practice. Palmer and Fontan conclude that the traditional foreign correspondent had changed dramatically during Gulf War II Media bureaus in Iraq are staffed by a rotation of reporters, who do not know the country and its people and are unable to speak Arabic, which makes fixers indispensable.
Although Western reporters fear that their fixers would harm the quality of their reporting, an independent analysis is necessary to substantiate such a claim. The field of research begs to be expanded upon, for example, to determine the extent of the actual gatekeeping done by fixers.
It is clear that they are invaluable to especially unilateral reporters, but it is also obvious that hostile fixers might have a significant impact on the agenda set by a journalist’s reports. Also, in view of the strict rules applied by the US military with regard to what embedded reporters were allowed to do, it makes sense that locals who lead reporters to stories the military would have preferred to be ignored, might cause problems.
It would be interesting to study the stresses between the US military’s media policies and the fixer-phenomenon. Despite the controversy about the gatekeeping function of the US military, little research has been done on it. Furthermore, research on people in gatekeeping positions does not explain the phenomenon in terms of the gatekeeping as a theory, e. The reasons for this can only be speculated about. However, this study will focus on only two of those stages, namely first and second level agendasetting.
Also, although agendasetting is an effects theory, the reaction of the audience to the set agendas is not tested as the focus of the study is on the flow of news. Agendasetting is a popular field of research, and during the period to scholars published the highest number ever 43 of international journal articles that refer to agendasetting Weaver, Obviously, not all of these studies refer to Gulf War II, but the controversial nature of the US government’s media policies during the war proved fertile ground for scholarly studies on agendasetting.
Due to the number of studies that were published since the start of Gulf War II, the current study will only focus on agendasetting research done on coverage during the war. Research dealing with the period preceding the war includes studies by St. The main issue addressed in this study is the sources cited in coverage by the selected television broadcasters. This highlights an interesting and very important aspect in the debate about partiality in reporting: while reporters may be unbiased in their presentation of information, the slant of the story may be determined by the sources they choose to cite Ayeni, Ayeni notes that the disproportionate number of government and military officials cited may be an indication of covert propaganda on the part of the Bush administration’s “power brokers”, which does not bode well to the general public who have to accept media reports reflecting the agenda set by the US government.
This is a reasonable conclusion, although an in-depth study of the government’s media strategy may prove that this specific matter, namely the number of official sources cited, forms part of the more overt part of the US strategy. Results show that the news agenda before the war was dominated by war plans and diplomacy issues. After the start of the war the news agenda consisted almost entirely of war reports, although in April criticism of the war plans was high on the agenda.
In June and July , war intelligence and US casualties were added to the agenda. Neither Abu Dhabi Channel nor Al Arabiya reported on anything but the war in Iraq, while Al Jazeera reported on Palestinians who were killed and injured in Bait Hanoon in clashes with Israelis, as well as an explosion at a Palestinian high school that injured 27 pupils. Zayani and Ayish conclude that the three television channels established themselves as the main Arab source of information on the war and that the mobilisation of the channels is seen as a direct challenge to especially the US hegemony.
Behind the perspective that transpires from the coverage of the fall of Baghdad lies arguably a sense of malaise, resentment and frustration that emanates from several decades of defeat.
From a theoretical perspective, authors often seem to drift between theories, especially between second level agendasetting and framing, sometimes treating them as variants of the same theory, for example the study by Kang This results in what Dietram Scheufele of the School of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Wisconsin, Madison, and David Tewksbury refer to as “a confusing set of concepts and terminologies” , which seems to be quite common in literature on this field of study.
Of course, second level agendasetting and framing are interrelated and involves very similar, yet distinguishable cognitive processes and effects Weaver, , Both refer to how issues are covered, rather than which issues are covered. This makes it all the more confusing. The problem is enhanced by the fact that not even the experts in communication research seem to agree about the distinction between the two concepts Weaver, American Strategic Communication Professor Frank Dardis referred to a “paradigm” when writing about what other scholars would have called either an “agenda” or a “frame”, depending on the definition they accept.
Because of this conundrum, an attempt will be made — at least for the purpose of this study — to clarify the differences between the theories. An “object” refers to topics, issues, and persons, which each have various attributes, i. Like objects, attributes may also vary in salience, which makes them equally powerful as agendasetting tools. The war itself was just one issue of a multitude of news events that could have been covered during that period of time and consisted of various incidents, such as the reasons for the attack, the much reported official beginning of the war, less reported incidents such as the marketplace bombing, hyped issues like the rescue of US Army Private Jessica Lynch, and the eventual toppling of the Saddam statue on Al Firdos Square, which signified the “capture of the castle” and therefore, the end of the war.
A closer study of these incidents revealed that they too involved different issues. Coverage of the beginning of Gulf War II, for example, dealt with the number of missiles that were launched, how spectacular the pyrotechnics were, and the depleted uranium in some of the rounds that were rained upon the city. The success of the operation constituted the second level of the agenda, which was created by frames such as myth the US army as the liberating saviour, striking selected targets with almost super-human precision , rites, rituals and traditions the ever-present American flag , jargon “shock and awe” , and spin direct declarations by leaders of the positive outcome of the operation.
Figure 22 is an attempt by this author to illustrate the perceived multiple tiers that were identified within the two levels of agendasetting proposed by McCombs A telescopic view of multiple tiers of agendasetting and framing embedded in the two levels of agendasetting proposed by McCombs Because of this lack of agreement amongst even the experts, the prolific volume of framing research published during the first five years of — an astounding papers Weaver, — represents a widely divergent spectrum of approaches to the concept.
Interestingly, prior to , few academic papers were produced that dealt with framing theory Berenger, The growing popularity of the theory in media research may be attributed to its being so well suited for studies in propaganda and public relations — issues that became especially prominent because of Gulf War II. Susan Currie Sivek of University of Texas at Austin compares the way embedded and unilateral newspaper reporters framed the war in Iraq and attempts to explain why the frames differed.
To answer these questions, Sivek analysed war reports by 57 journalists whose status as “embedded” or “unilateral” is known that were published in the US, UK, Canada and Australia. This suggests that one of the most important factors determining the frame of the war reports is the status of the reporter as either embedded or unilateral.
Sivek concludes that reporters and editors involved in embedding programmes, whatever its nature, should be conscious how they frame their reports and to make sure that it does not merely reflect the viewpoint of those they are embedded with: The distinctive situation of embedded war correspondents, plunged into a situation dangerous both to the quality of their reporting and their lives, deserves special attention and even unique training so that these journalists can continue to report from a critical standpoint and utilize a variety of frames in their work.
That attention is especially required given evidence of framing effects found in some studies. From this explication it is clear that fundamental cultural differences exist between the US and Sweden. For example, Sweden has a high newspaper readership, while the US has a low readership.
Conversely, Sweden has a low level of television viewing, while the US has a high level of television viewing. Sweden saw the war as a violation of international law; the US led the “coalition of the willing” against Iraq.
They predicted that war reports in the US and Sweden would differ significantly in terms of tone, frames and sources. The newspapers differed significantly with regard to the military conflict, responsibility, anti-war protest and prognostic frames, but both used the human interest frame in 17 percent of the stories. They equally used the violence of war, media self-referential and diagnostic frames.
Neither of the newspapers often used the diagnostic frame. Results also showed that The New York Times relied much more on official and military sources 92 percent than Dagens Nyheter 40 percent. Interestingly The New York Times cited anonymous sources in as many as 78 percent of the reports, while Dagens Nyheter did so in only 54 percent of the stories. The authors propose that these differences in coverage may ultimately reinforce and possibly increase global divisions about the war.
The similarities in reporting, especially about human interest and media self-reference, may “suggest a trend toward Americanisation of the journalism process”.
They compare 1 reports on the war in Iraq and other Asian conflicts published by eight newspapers from India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and the Philippines in terms of national and international conflict coverage Lee et al. With the above classification in mind, Lee et al. Results show that a disproportionate number of stories were framed as war journalism and fewer as peace journalism in local Asian reports, while the opposite is true of coverage of the war in Iraq Lee et al. The strongest indicators of the peace frame that emerged from the analysis of reports on both the local Asian conflicts and Gulf War II are Lee et al.
Most of the features and opinion pieces have a peace frame. The results also show a positive correlation between story length and the peace frame: the longer the story, the more likely that it used the peace frame; the shorter the story the more likely it is to be framed as war journalism.
It also seems that reports from foreign sources are more likely to contain war frames and fewer peace frames than local Asian stories. Other framing studies referring to the war in Iraq were conducted by Fahmy , Giffen , Lin and Boaz Some of the authors agree with one another, others disagree, and many more write about completely divergent concepts, all referred to as “framing” Scheufele, This disparity of approaches is exemplified by the dissimilarity of framing studies on war reporting.
For example, Denise St. In a study of media coverage before and during Gulf War I, American Philosophy of Education Professor Douglas Kellner found that the war was framed as “a simple conflict between good and evil”, which agrees with only one of the aspects addressed by Lee et al.
A review of the most recent framing analyses on Gulf War II creates an impression of a multitude of researchers all working towards a collective goal, but with none knowing what the others are doing — which most likely is true.
If the same research could be undertaken using common parameters for delineating frames, a much better picture would emerge of how the war was framed on a global scale. As it stands now, frame research on Gulf War II is a collection of disparate and disconnected — albeit often excellent — facts and figures.
Suggestions by scholars such as Hallahan , Alan Knight, Australian Journalism, Media and Communication scholar , Berinsky and Kinder , and film maker and media critic Peter Watkins about the “story” side of news prompted the exploration of the use of the story — as in “folk tale” — as a frame used by US government officials and reflected by the media during Operation Iraqi Freedom. Pfc Jessica Lynch , prompted this researcher to look into the possibility of using a story frame for the analysis of war coverage.
Interesting work has however been done in other fields, such as political studies and military studies. For example, in his book War stories American political scientist Bruce D. Larkin looks at accounts of war from a political — not a media — perspective. According to Larkin, “[a]ccounts of wars are ‘stories’, akin to other kinds of stories” He continues to assign events during Gulf War I to the categories suggested by Propp and concludes that “[t]here are startling parallels”.
This salience of a story frame in times of conflict is also highlighted by military scholars Casebeer and Russell , who look at the attacks of 11 September as part of a narrative — or a story — for the American public that shall exist in some form forever Casebeer and Russell propose the creation of a comprehensive “counter- narrative strategy” to oppose the “Al Qaeda narrative”.
The authors suggest that the countering of the Al Qaeda narrative should be a critical mission requirement of any strategy to confront the organization … Myth creation usually involves the effective use of narrative.
Good stories need protagonists, antagonists, tests for the protagonist, a promise of redemption, and a supporting cast of characters at the very least.
He explains that by treating decision makers as storytellers, it is possible to see the conflict between them as a problem of intertextuality Ringmar notes that while narratives are often based on the same facts, their interpretations and thus their conclusions differ : stories present different agendas for action and thereby different moral choices.
Consequently, it is not surprising that decision-makers who tell different stories end up disagreeing with one another. Ringmar points out narratives have always followed a predictable plot, which is why it grabs and holds the attention of the audience, and why the audience is able to make sense of it Romance, the most common fairytale, is currently famous as Hollywood love stories, but is best illustrated by the adventure story Ringmar, : a quest undertaken by a chivalric knight, a brave explorer, an ardent lover, or some other heroic figure.
The hero is dashing and daring … and the story unfolds as he searches for something or someone, or tries to conquer something or someone. Often there are three stages to the quest: first the perilous journey, next the struggle or the conquest, and finally the exaltation of the hero.
According to Ringmar romance is the story type favoured by “idealists and world- improvers of all kinds”, such as free-market enthusiasts, anti-Communist crusaders, Greenpeace activists, Esperanto-speakers and anti-globalization protesters, as well as politicians and social elites : These are people who believe that evil can be defeated, that the world can be made into a better place, and usually also that they are the very instruments chosen by God, Providence or History to carry out this task.
Occasionally, the romantics are pacifists, but more often they are warlike and fully prepared to fight for their beliefs. The world as they see it presents a struggle between good and evil, and evil must be annihilated for good to prevail. Following his own mind, he comes into conflict with the laws of society or nature, and as the social or natural order is re-established the hero is relentlessly crushed. In the end no one escapes and no one gets away with anything, no matter how good the intentions.
In fact, the better the intentions, the more decisive the defeat will be. In the war in Iraq the tragic narrative was promoted by the traditional American foreign policy establishment who declared that “[i]f we want peace we have to prepare for war, and only we ourselves can guarantee our own preservation” Ringmar, , Comedy commonly refers to an act designed to elicit laughter, but as a narrative type it refers to “a comedy of errors”, an account of conflicts and misconceptions that are accidentally resolved during the course of the story Ringmar, In Gulf War II, the so-called “old Europeans” were the “comedians” Ringmar, : As they see it, the problems of the world are mainly the results of misunderstandings, and for that reason the most important task is to provide some means by which states can sort out their differences.
Our enemies should not be destroyed, but instead engaged in conversation; hence the importance of international organizations and fora. Working through the European Union, the United Nations or the International Monetary Fund, a new and better world can indeed be created but only in small steps and through painstaking and profoundly non-glamorous effort One by one our enemies will come to see the advantages of our social model and abandon their old ways.
Our enemies are mistaken rather than evil, and we should interact with them rather than kill them. Satire refers to an ironic world view which ridicules the established social order, exemplified by the other narrative types, and is consequently subversive rather than constructive Ringmar, This was the narrative followed by critics of the war in Iraq as well as the newly liberated Iraqis: The basic strategy is to turn other plot structures inside-out, upside-down, or to deconstruct and reassemble them in unrecognizable patterns They know that if the official narrative fails to unfold as the leaders envisioned the satirical narrative will quickly gain credence.
The moment politicians are made into fools, their power quickly dissipates. Such disagreements contribute to the plurality of viewpoints, which ultimately improves the global ability to assess a situation. Other studies that refer to the use of story elements in the analysis of news were done by American Journalism and Communication scholar Jack Lule and Australian communication researcher Peter Pugsley Lule explored the differences between news as information and news as myth or a story complete with characters, a plot and a theme.
Stressing that according to his definition news as myth does not suggest a false belief, or a biased, slanted, spun or untrue tale 15 , he argued that news stories offer “sacred, societal narratives with shared values and beliefs, with lessons and themes, and with exemplary models that instruct and inform: they are offering myths” Pugsley examined how in China the “hero narrative” is deliberately employed by the media during difficult times to mobilise the public and to ultimately create a positive outcome in which “the enemy”, be it foreigners, corrupt government officials or even nature, is defeated.
According to Pugsley this is purposefully done to control the Chinese mass audience. The few studies that were published give valuable perspective on the way the complexities of world politics — and especially Gulf War II — were made comprehensible to world audiences. Most of the papers that used Gulf War II as research case were produced not before the present study, but at the same time.
The present study therefore does not expand on the reviewed literature, but acknowledges it for its contribution to the available body of knowledge on news analysis of the war in Iraq. For this purpose they implemented the Embedded Media Program, which allowed some selected, trained and contractually bound reporters — most of them American — to accompany the military to the war front.
The new media policies became the subject of much debate amongst academics, social commentators as well as the media itself due to its potentially propagandistic implementation Diemand, ; Hafez, ; Misken et al. As only one South African newspaper reporter was present in Iraq during Operation Iraqi Freedom — he operated as a unilateral — the local press had to rely on foreign sources for information about the war.
This begged the question: where did these reports originate and what were the tone and general message of these reports? In order to find an answer, these policies as well as the historical relationship between the US government and the media in times of conflict are examined in this study and an attempt is made to determine whether and to what extent the American view found its way to war reports published by four major South African newspapers.
All relevant news reports published in four leading South African newspapers as well as news briefings by the White House and Pentagon during Operation Iraqi Freedom were analysed in terms of gatekeeping, framing, and agendasetting using the story frame, which is an adapted version of Propp’s fairytale analysis, as a yardstick. In Chapter 4 the aim of the research and the research questions pertaining to the above are stated.
Key concepts are defined and the instruments used to measure these variables are explained. Next, the sample design and sampling methods are discussed, along with an explanation of the key variables used in the analyses. The US made no secret of its desire to gain the support of the international community for the American led war on Iraq and critics were of the opinion that this policy in particular was designed to saturate the international media with news reports biased towards the American point of view Diemand, ; Misken et al.
This is augmented with a focused examination of the interaction between the media and the US military during various conflicts since the American Civil War up to Operation Iraqi Freedom. This examination is highlighted the views of international war correspondents, namely Peter Arnett, Paul Watson, Martin Savidge, Robert Fisk, and Bonny Schoonakker, who personally experienced the outcome of the US media policy during different conflicts.
US media policies during Operation Iraqi Freedom is the focus of this study, and are assessed with special reference to the Embedded Media Program, its ground rules and the media boot camp.
A combination of qualitative and quantitative methods are used to analyse the content of all Operation Iraqi Freedom news reports that were published by the leading English and Afrikaans daily and Sunday newspapers, namely The Star English, daily , and Die Burger Afrikaans, daily , as well as Sunday Times English, Sunday , and Rapport Afrikaans, Sunday between 21 March the day after the commencement of Operation Shock and Awe and 2 May the day after the announcement of the end of major combat operations to establish whether and to what extent the US government’s take on the war found its way to South Africa.
The newspaper reports are classified into news agency reports, reports written by own reporters or local experts, and reports compiled from various news sources. The content analyses are done using selected theoretical models of gatekeeping, agenda- setting, and framing as parameters.
Propp’s fairytale analysis is employed to enumerate elements in the news agenda of major role players during Operation Iraqi Freedom, as well as to investigate the “story” as a news frame. This was done by means of content analyses of Operation Iraqi Freedom reports published by four leading South African newspapers.
Which ones were the most salient? Were the same elements evident in news agency reports published by the South African newspapers, and in the overall coverage by these newspapers? Therefore, an extensive list of terms will be supplied in the next chapter. Following in the present chapter, the most important concepts referred to in this study, namely news flow, gatekeeping, agendasetting, framing and the story frame, as they are understood by the author, will first be discussed.
This is still the case Kleinsteuber, In this study, the term “gatekeeping” will refer to the actions taken by the “gatekeepers” in the news flow process, namely the source e. US government officials , reporters embedded and unilateral , sub-editors and editors who “man the gates” at various points in the news flow channel, e.
According to Lazarsfeld and Merton the media has the ability to give prominence to issues, people and social institutions through coverage thereof. According to McCombs the term “agenda” is not intended to imply that a news organisation has an evil premeditated schema that it pursues relentlessly.
It is purely a descriptive term which refers to the result over time of numerous day-to-day decisions by all the gatekeepers in a news organisation, from the reporter in the field to the sub- editor and the editor. This is the definition of agendasetting that will be used in this study. This study will address two types of agendasetting, namely first and second level agendasetting. While first level agendasetting refers to the transmission of object topics, issues, and persons salience, second level agendasetting involves the transmission of attribute characteristics and properties McCombs, When people do not have first-hand knowledge of issues or events they rely on the news media for information, but also for the clarifying and interpretation of the information Franklin et al.
The communicator presents the information in such a manner that it fits into the audience’s existing frame of reference.
Framing is understood in this study as the selection of certain aspects of an issue to promote a particular view of the problem Entman, For this reason, the general elements present in most stories were sought and found in the seminal work by Vladimir Propp, who in analysed a collection of Russian fairytales. He deconstructed the stories into their “small component parts” and identified 31 basic elements or “functions” Table 1, p.
For the purpose of this study, these elements and character types are distilled to find the single most common story. This was done by comparing the frequency that elements and characters occurred in stories according to Propp’s analysis These story elements are used as markers in the identification of a story frame. While there are obviously many ways to categorise news content Sreberny- Mohammadi, , the instrument used in this study was selected because it was tried and tested over time in decidedly more extensive research projects.
In accordance with the instructions for the Unesco study, the newspapers are selected by including those with the largest circulation Sreberny- Mohammadi, Thus, the selected newspapers are respectively the largest English and Afrikaans daily and Sunday newspapers in South Africa during the period of study Table 3.
Table 3. All relevant news reports available in these archives were analysed and compared to one another as well as to transcripts of public appearances by President George W. Table 4a. Location of newspaper reports in the internet archives Newspaper Internet location Keywords No. The dates were adjusted for the Sunday newspapers to include the first publication dates after these marker events, namely 23 March to 4 May For the purpose of this study the term “news report” precluded financial news e.
The sources of the reports were varied. The sources of the news reports included US, UK and Iraqi officials, experts, civilians, spokespeople from various organisations, soldiers and interestingly, other media. The last two variables, namely slant and story elements, are closely related and are determined through a careful qualitative reading of the news reports and transcripts and therefore depend on a subjective judgement.
The story elements are categorised according to Propp’s fairytale analysis. The most common story according to this analysis is about a villain who causes harm to a victim, prompting the hero to go on a quest.
The hero receives a magic agent from a donor, which he uses to achieve victory over the villain in order to right a wrong and ultimately to win the hand of the princess Table 6, next page. While these elements were all present in the speeches of the US government officials, Bush, Fleischer, Rumsfeld and Clarke adapted their stories to suit different audiences. For example, when Bush addressed the Lima Army Tank Plant where Abrams tanks were constructed, he emphasised the role of these tanks as the magic agent in the war, and not the military personnel who built them Bush, i : [I]t is this facility that has provided the American military with the most effective armoured vehicle in the history of warfare — the mighty Abrams tank.
Bush often referred to himself as the one to fight the evil villain e. Table 6. Abbreviated list of functions of Propp’s most common story elements Villain his role is to disrupt the peace of a happy family, to cause some form of misfortune, damage or harm p. Without any negative comments added, these qualities constituted a “hero”, which is indicative of a positive slant.
However, where the same attributes were referred to but criticised, the slant was indicated as negative. It is clear that for categorisation, the story elements necessarily have to be evaluated in the context they were used. Therefore, the quantitative analyses of these documents were fully based on a qualitative assessment and interpretation of the reports.
As such, this study can neither be regarded as purely qualitative or quantitative, but must be seen as a fusion of the two methods of research. To exclude either method would have been vastly detrimental to the scope of the research. This study uses these eight most common story elements as a yardstick to measure the extent of gatekeeping, agendasetting and framing during Operation Iraqi Freedom. For the full coding schedule and datasheet, see Appendix I. Issues of measurement were addressed, namely the coding instruments that are used as well as how sampling is done, with an explanation of the key variables used in the analyses.
Next, the evolution of the relationship between war correspondents and the US government and military is tracked from the Crimean War up until the war in Afghanistan. Such publications do not add a man to our strength, in no ways benefit us, but are invaluable to the enemy.
It was a dynamic force in the historical development of newspapers, and ultimately, the mass media as a whole. The singular relationship between the military and the media as seen throughout Gulf War II has its roots in the earliest days of journalism, and played a decisive role in the gatekeeping, agendasetting and framing of news about the war. When the course of this relationship over time is studied, it is clear that the fundamental obstacles have largely remained the same: while it is crucial to the survival of the military in times of war to keep information about their capabilities, strategies and positions secret, it is at the same time crucial to the survival of the media to publish exactly that information.